How do you know if an artificial intelligence system is so powerful that it poses a security danger and shouldn’t be unleashed without careful oversight?
For regulators trying to put guardrails on AI, it’s mostly about the arithmetic. Specifically, an AI model trained on 10 to the 26th floating-point operations must now be reported to the U.S. government and could soon trigger even stricter requirements in California.
Say what? Well, if you’re counting the zeroes, that’s 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, or 100 septillion, calculations to train AI systems on huge troves of data.
What it signals to some lawmakers and AI safety advocates is a level of computing power that might enable rapidly advancing AI technology to create or proliferate weapons of mass destruction, or conduct catastrophic cyberattacks.
Those who’ve crafted such regulations acknowledge they are an imperfect starting point to distinguish today’s highest-performing generative AI systems — largely made by California-based companies like Anthropic, Google, Meta Platforms and ChatGPT-maker OpenAI — from the next generation that could be even more powerful.
Critics have pounced on the thresholds as arbitrary — an attempt by governments to regulate math. Adding to the confusion is that some rules set a speed-based computing threshold — how many floating-point operations per second, known as flops — while others are based on cumulative number of calculations no matter how long they take.
“Ten to the 26th flops,” said venture capitalist Ben Horowitz on a podcast this summer. “Well, what if that’s the size of the model you need to, like, cure cancer?”
An executive order signed by President Joe Biden last year relies on a 10 to the 26th threshold. So does California’s newly passed AI safety legislation — which Gov. Gavin Newsom has until Sept. 30 to sign into law or veto. California adds a second metric to the equation: regulated AI models must also cost at least $100 million to build.
Following Biden’s footsteps, the European Union’s sweeping AI Act also measures floating-point operations, but sets the bar 10 times lower at 10 to the 25th power. That covers some AI systems already in operation. China’s government has also looked at measuring computing power to determine which AI systems need safeguards.
No publicly available models meet the higher California threshold, though it’s likely that some companies have already started to build them. If so, they’re supposed to be sharing certain details and safety precautions with the U.S. government. Biden employed a Korean War-era law to compel tech companies to alert the U.S. Commerce Department if they’re building such AI models.
AI researchers are still debating how best to evaluate the capabilities of the latest generative AI technology and how it compares to human intelligence. There are tests that judge AI on solving puzzles, logical reasoning or how swiftly and accurately it predicts what text will answer a person’s chatbot query. Those measurements help assess an AI tool’s usefulness for a given task, but there’s no easy way of knowing which one is so widely capable that it poses a danger to humanity.
“This computation, this flop number, by general consensus is sort of the best thing we have along those lines,” said physicist Anthony Aguirre, executive director of the Future of Life Institute, which has advocated for the passage of California’s Senate Bill 1047 and other AI safety rules around the world.
Floating point arithmetic might sound fancy “but it’s really just numbers that are being added or multiplied together,” making it one of the simplest ways to assess an AI model’s capability and risk, Aguirre said.
“Most of what these things are doing is just multiplying big tables of numbers together,” he said. “You can just think of typing in a couple of numbers into your calculator and adding or multiplying them. And that’s what it’s doing — ten trillion times or a hundred trillion times.”
For some tech leaders, however, it’s too simple and hard-coded a metric. There’s “no clear scientific support” for using such metrics as a proxy for risk, argued computer scientist Sara Hooker, who leads AI company Cohere’s nonprofit research division, in a July paper.
“Compute thresholds as currently implemented are shortsighted and likely to fail to mitigate risk,” she wrote.
Venture capitalist Horowitz and his business partner Marc Andreessen, founders of the influential Silicon Valley investment firm Andreessen Horowitz, have attacked the Biden administration as well as California lawmakers for AI regulations they argue could snuff out an emerging AI startup industry.
For Horowitz, putting limits on “how much math you’re allowed to do” reflects a mistaken belief there will only be a handful of big companies making the most capable models and you can put “flaming hoops in front of them and they’ll jump through them and it’s fine.”
In response to the criticism, the sponsor of California’s legislation sent a letter to Andreessen Horowitz this summer defending the bill, including its regulatory thresholds.
Regulating at over 10 to the 26th is “a clear way to exclude from safety testing requirements many models that we know, based on current evidence, lack the ability to cause critical harm,” wrote state Sen. Scott Wiener of San Francisco. Existing publicly released models “have been tested for highly hazardous capabilities and would not be covered by the bill,” Wiener said.
Both Wiener and the Biden executive order treat the metric as a temporary one that could be adjusted later.
Yacine Jernite, who works on policy research at the AI company Hugging Face, said the computing metric emerged in “good faith” ahead of last year’s Biden order but is already starting to grow obsolete. AI developers are doing more with smaller models requiring less computing power, while the potential harms of more widely used AI products won’t trigger California’s proposed scrutiny.
“Some models are going to have a drastically larger impact on society, and those should be held to a higher standard, whereas some others are more exploratory and it might not make sense to have the same kind of process to certify them,” Jernite said.
Aguirre said it makes sense for regulators to be nimble, but he characterizes some opposition to the threshold as an attempt to avoid any regulation of AI systems as they grow more capable.
“This is all happening very fast,” Aguirre said. “I think there’s a legitimate criticism that these thresholds are not capturing exactly what we want them to capture. But I think it’s a poor argument to go from that to, ‘Well, we just shouldn’t do anything and just cross our fingers and hope for the best.’”
FILE - President Joe Biden signs an executive on artificial intelligence in the East Room of the White House, Oct. 30, 2023, in Washington. Vice President Kamala Harris looks on at right. (AP Photo/Evan Vucci, File)
SPRINGFIELD, Ohio (AP) — For many Haitian immigrants, Sunday mornings in Springfield, Ohio, are spent joyfully worshipping God as they sing and pray in their native Creole. This Sunday, they needed that uplifting balm more than ever.
Their community is reeling — confused, frustrated, hurt — from false accusations that they are eating their neighbor’s cats and dogs. The now viral and highly politicized rumors are being fueled by former President Donald Trump, his running mate JD Vance and others, and violent threats against the community are upending daily life in their city.
“Jesus is with us in truth, and the truth is that Haitians are not eating pets and geese in Springfield,” said the Rev. Carl Ruby, preaching at Central Christian Church. He invited community members to join his congregation in prayer and peaceful protest of the false rumors leveled against their Haitian neighbors.
They also demanded an apology.
“It is truth that a retraction of these rumors will help to restore peace in Springfield," Ruby said. “We respectfully call on all politicians and media figures who are promoting this rumor to help make Springfield great and safe again by speaking the truth about our community.”
Viles Dorsainvil, the leader of Haitian Community Help and Support Center in Springfield, accepted Ruby's invitation to worship together at Central Christian, and was grateful to be relying on his faith.
“It’s important to be here because we’re Christian — despite everything, we worship in good times and bad times,” he said. “I’m relieved that I’m in the presence of God. It’s therapeutic.”
And he had a message for Trump and Vance: “If they have the heart of God, they will think differently and speak differently.”
The rumors, spread on social media and by Trump during Tuesday’s televised presidential debate against Vice President Kamala Harris, have exacerbated fears about division and anti-immigrant sentiment ahead of the election in the mostly white, blue-collar city of about 59,000 where more than 15,000 Haitians now live and work.
Thousands of temporary Haitian migrants have legally landed in Springfield in recent years under the U.S.'s Temporary Protected Status program, as longstanding unrest in their home country has given way to violent gangs ruling the streets.
Ohio Gov. Mike DeWine, a Republican, has said the federal government needs to do more to help cities like Springfield serve the influx of migrants. On ABC’s “This Week," DeWine called the Haitians good, hardworking people who are in the U.S. legally, and said the false rumors are a piece of internet garbage.
“There’s no evidence of this at all,” he said during the program.
Despite the governor and local officials debunking the rumors, Vance reiterated the conspiracy theory on Sunday's “Face the Nation” on CBS while blasting Harris on her U.S.-Mexico border policy.
At Central Christian Church, Ruby encouraged his congregation to help hand out thousands of cards around Springfield that had been printed in Creole and English with a message of support for Haitians. It reads" “I’m glad you are here. Christ loves you and so do I."
As the service ended, Ruby praised parishioners for a beautiful moment amid what he called a storm of chaos. Looking at the Haitian members in the first pew and at the rest of his congregation, he asked them to come together in prayer: “Pray and think what it is to be a Haitian parent sending their child this week to school."
One of those parents is Mia Perez, 35 an immigration lawyer whose 9-year-old daughter had to evacuate her school twice because of bomb threats to a nearby DMV this week.
“Kids in school are being asked by other kids: ’How does the dog taste? How does the cat taste?” Perez said, describing her daughter’s distress.
"She’s asking, 'Are we the kind of Haitians who eat this kind of stuff? Is it true? What’s happening?'”
“This is a conversation that I was not ready to have with my daughter," Perez said. "I felt disrespected of our culture.”
On Sunday, Perez attended a service at Saint Raphael’s Catholic church, while a Springfield police officer stood guard outside. Attendance by Haitians was lower than usual, and Perez — after talking with others who did attend — said many from their community stayed away out of fears for their safety,
“This is emotional," she said. "They made a statement of not being here. Catholic Haitian people have such strong faith — not even hurricanes can keep them away, but look at this here today.”
Another service was held at The First Haitian Church, located next to the Haitian Community Center.
“They feel the threat. They feel not welcome,” Bernardette Dor, 51, one of the pastors, said after the service. “Even in the school system sometimes, they feel different, not because of their skin color but because they’re Haitian. But the reality is that we’re beautiful and we’re blessed.”
Though she worries about repercussions of the false statements, she said gathering to worship with her community and feeling support from others in Springfield gives her hope.
“We are united. It is time for good to stand for good,” she said. “This time the city of Springfield, Haitian people, asked the Lord to stay together to fight for good ... America is a great loving country, and American people care for people – it doesn’t matter if they are Haitian. We’re against lies.”
After the service, some parishioners gathered at Rose Goute Creole restaurant for a traditional Haitian meal of rice and beans, fried plantains and pork. One of them, Jacob Payen, said the restaurant has been transformed in recent days.
“We’ve been outnumbered — we have more non-Haitian guests here at the restaurant who are curious to know the culture and Haitian cuisine,” he said. “We feel that they’re sending a strong message: if they’re here eating with us because they trust us.”
Among those attending the earlier service at Central Christian was Rose-Thamar Joseph, 40, who works at the Haitian Community Center.
“I was praying for peace and protection — for the Haitian community and all of Springfield," she said. “I just want Springfield to go back to what it was a couple of months ago."
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AP visual journalist Jessie Wardarski contributed.
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Associated Press religion coverage receives support through the AP’s collaboration with The Conversation US, with funding from Lilly Endowment Inc. The AP is solely responsible for this content.
Carl Ruby, pastor at Central Christian Church, hugs Viles Dorsainvil during service, on Sunday, Sept. 15, 2024, in Springfield, Ohio. (AP Photo/Jessie Wardarski)
Members of the Haitian community, from left, Lindsay Aime, James Fleurijean, Rose-Thamar Joseph, Harold Herard, and Viles Dorsainvil, stand for worship with Carl Ruby, pastor at Central Christian Church, in Springfield, Ohio, on Sunday, Sept. 15, 2024. (AP Photo/Jessie Wardarski)
Carl Ruby, pastor at Central Christian Church, hugs Lindsay Aime during service, on Sunday, Sept. 15, 2024, in Springfield, Ohio. (AP Photo/Jessie Wardarski)
Central Christian Church congregants stand to applaud members of the Haitian community during service, on Sunday, Sept. 15, 2024, in Springfield, Ohio. (AP Photo/Jessie Wardarski)
Members of the Haitian community in Springfield, Ohio, from left, Lindsay Aime, James Fleurijean, Viles Dorsainvil, and Rose-Thamar Joseph, stand for worship at Central Christian Church, on Sunday, Sept. 15, 2024. (AP Photo/Jessie Wardarski)
